Socius Meaning And The Neighbor

The socius and the neighbor are two ways of relating with others. The socius pertains to the relationship with a group or a person through social function. In my understanding, this is a functional kind of relationship based on one’s label such as a student, for example, for being a part of an organization. Thus, in other words, the socius is the arbitrate relationship I have with others. The neighbor however, is a personal way of encountering the other as a person. It’s a relationship that develops deeper in degrees. It usually starts from an initial encounter that develops into a higher level of intimacy. Therefore, the neighbor is the abrupt relationship with others. On The Level of Astonishment: In the parable of The Good Samaritan, the Levite and the priest were surprised by the event they encountered before them but since they had a prior commitment and being a responsible member of an institution, they were unavailable to entertain the man. The traveler however did not have any institution to answer to which makes him available for the man in need. Through the encounter, the traveler became present to the man. His behavior is his natural character because he’s doing such an act without an institution being a catalyst. The Last Judgment on the other hand unveils the prophecy regarding the encounter of the Samaritan with the man. It is astonishing for the Samaritan to know the meaning of his simple, compassionate act. The Samaritan symbolizes the great acts of humans and encounter Christ in a way. Through this the message â€Å"Go and do likewise† is made known. On The Level of Reflection: There is no such thing as a â€Å"neighbor† if we base it on Sociology because according to its definition, Sociology is the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction, and collective behavior of organized groups of human beings. That is why in this point of view, the neighbor is called a â€Å"man of regret, dreams and myth† meaning it doesn’t exist. The socius would refer the neighbor as outdated. The parable of the Good Samaritan would bring us to the reflection that if there are no beggars to be given charity in the future where humankind will no longer suffer or experience hunger, because of men’s ability to evolve technology, then there’s no place for a neighbor. People will be a part of an association and the parable and the prophecy will have lost its meaning. This would bring us to the understanding that the socius is the â€Å"man of history† meaning he can mold the olden times. On The Level of Meditation: Both the socius and the neighbor are two dimensions of relating with others, an encounter. It shows how human relationship is in the current society. The neighbor is the private relationship we share with others and the socius is the publicity we make with our colleagues. In reality, there is no safe abode in our private lives without the protection of a public administration. Therefore the neighbor emerges from the socius. But also, man is awakened when he is socially stripped. Charity is humble. It is the common intention of the socius and the neighbor, their common ground. The socius and the neighbor are the two faces of charity. It is charity that gives meaning to the social interaction and to the event of the encounter. An encounter is not dependent on history with its disputation between the socius and the neighbor. But history ropes the extent of charity.

Radio for Education in Bd

History of Radio in Bangladesh_ Bangladesh Betar (Bengali: ) or BB is the state-owned radio broadcasting organisation of Bangladesh. It was also known as Radio Bangladesh between 1975 and 1996. Radio transmission in the region now forming Bangladesh started in Dhaka on December 16, 1939. Initially, the station was located in old Dhaka. Later, the station was relocated to Shahbag. It played an important role during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.On March 26, 1971, the broadcasting center of Radio Pakistan was used to transmit a declaration of independence, which was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Chittagong Harbor and retransmitted. During the war, it was known as Shwadhin Bangla Betar Kendro (Independent Bengal Radio Station). Due to heavy shelling, the station had to be relocated several times, and ultimately moved to Calcutta on May 25, from where it would broadcast until the end of the war. On December 6, it was renamed Bangladesh Betar. Today we have 10 radio statio ns running in Bangladesh. Those are_ * ABC Radio (Bangladesh) * Bangladesh Betar * DHAKA FM 90. * Radio 2fun| * Radio Amar * Radio Dhaka * Radio Foorti * Radio Metrowave * Radio Today * RadioGoonGoon Types of Radio_ ————————————————- FM (Frequency Modulation) Radio Frequency modulation, FM is widely used for a variety of radio communications applications. FM broadcasts on the VHF bands still provide exceptionally high quality audio, and FM is also used for a variety of forms of two way radio communications, and it is especially useful for mobile radio communications, being used in taxis, and many other forms of vehicle. n view of its widespread use, frequency modulation, FM, is an important form of modulation, despite many forms of digital transmission being used these days. FM, frequency modulation has been in use for many years. However its advantages were not immediatel y apparent. In the early days of wireless, it was thought that a narrower bandwidth was required to reduce noise and interference. As FM did not perform well under these conditions, AM predominated and FM was not used.However, Edwin Armstrong, an American engineer looked at the use of wideband FM for broadcasting and introduced the idea against the trend of the thinking of the time. Since its first introduction the use of frequency modulation, FM has grown enormously. Now wideband FM is still regarded as a very high quality transmission medium for high quality broadcasting. FM, frequency modulation is also widely used for communications where it is resilient to variations in signal strength. FM, frequency modulation basicsThe most obvious method of applying modulation to a signal is to superimpose the audio signal onto the amplitude of the carrier. However this is by no means the only method which can be employed. It is also possible to vary the frequency of the signal to give frequ ency modulation or FM. It can be seen below that the frequency of the signal varies as the voltage of the modulating signal changes. Concept of frequency modulation The amount by which the signal frequency varies is very important. This is known as the deviation and is normally quoted as the number of kiloHertz deviation.As an example the signal may have a deviation of  ±3 kHz. In this case the carrier is made to move up and down by 3 kHz. ————————————————- Community Radio Community radio stations are community owned and operated entities that serve either localized geographic communities or communities of interest, such as minorities, religious groups and universities. Community radio is unique because the stations are run by the communities themselves. They are owned and managed by the people they serve. The management is usually a small team of paid staff with the pro gramming onducted by volunteers. Unlike commercial stations, community stations are not allowed to run for profit. They must be established as voluntary associations, not-for-profits or trusts. The station’s constitution must say that any profit will be channeled into further developing the station. To ensure the stations are not run for profit they are usually subject to strict advertising controls. Commonly the regulator stipulates that advertising content ought to be capped to allow, for example, a maximum of five minutes per hour of programming. New stations often start with a public meeting.Members of a community (either geographic or community of interest) come together as a working group to create a   vision for the station, plan programming and develop facilities. Over time, more and more members of the community are recruited and trained (FETAC training is available through) to help out behind the scenes, produce and present programmes reflective of their community and experience. 100 day broadcasting licenses are secured from the BAI and as a track record is built with regards to programming, operations, and community involvement, a multi-year licence becomes available.To operate full licenses, groups constitute themselves as cooperatives or limited companies with no share capital, and a board is elected from the community to manage the station transparently and with accountability in the interests of all. Community Radio has the capacity to reinforce what is good about Irish Society and to help find solutions to its failings. Community Radio facilities individuals, groups, and communities to tell their own diverse stories, to share experiences, and in a media rich world to become active creators and contributors rather than passive consumers.It presents a unique vehicle for the community and voluntary sector, civil society, agencies, NGOs & citizens to work in partnership to make a difference. Community Radio offers- * rare and direct media access for all perspectives in our communities,   * the potential for innovation inherent in non-profit, community owned and operated media * Diversity in the provision of programming, especially where there would be insufficient profit for the commercial sector and too much cost for the public service sector. Offers a resurgence of local media highlighting local issues, opinions and voices in contrast to mainstream medias increasingly centralised content production. * The skills, resources and the opportunity to understand media by members of our communities through actively participating in its creation and delivery. * a unique mechanism to engage with social exclusion by acting as a vehicle for outcome-driven personal and professional training and development * a powerful tool in providing services and supports to communities, especially disadvantaged and excluded communities. the opportunity to promote democracy, human rights and sustainability. * a challenge to global media blandness in reinforcing local identities while acting as a catalyst for integration and inclusion. ————————————————- Public Broadcasting Public broadcasting is broadcasting made for the public, funded by the public (through tax) and controlled by the public (through parliament). The defining feature of public broadcasting is its inclusiveness. Public broadcasting must be accessible to all and diverse enough to appeal to all.Unlike state broadcasting, which serves the interests of the state, public broadcasting is uniquely positioned to serve the public in all its diverse forms. Further, public service broadcasters (PSBs) are protected from political and commercial pressures, which positions them to best serve the public’s rights to freedom of expression and freedom of information. This is why public broadcasting has such a crucial role to play in democratic societi es. Defining features of public service broadcasting: * Accessible to all * Serving the public interest in all its shapes Emphasis on quality, balance and impartiality * Provisions for minorities * Commitment to education of the public * Freedom to produce challenging and controversial programming * Independent from political and commercial interference * Forum for expression of national cultural identity Independence of a public broadcaster is vital: independence for the board and editorial independence for management. Securing independence means overcoming the prevailing mindset among those in power that the airwaves belong to the state.MISA believes the independence of a public service broadcaster in Swaziland will only be ensured if it is guaranteed in law. MISA is advocating for such a law to include the following: * A description of the composition of the PSB board to ensure it is broadly representative of the public and excludes office bearers with the state and people with f inancial interests in broadcasting; * A public and transparent board appointments procedure that minimizes political and commercial interference; * A stipulation that no one has a right to influence the work of the board; * Editorial freedom for the PSB management; Accountability of the PSB is to the public through parliament, not an individual minister or ministry; * An adequate and secure funding mechanism that protects from arbitrary interference. For more detail on public service broadcasting law see the Article 19 Model Public Service Broadcasting Law under Law Reform. MISA calls on the government to: * Enact legislation establishing a public broadcasting entity, recognizing its full independence and public service mandate. * Conduct organizational restructure allowing the merger of television and radio with one independent board to develop the organizational policy. Allow editorial policies that capture the unique responsibilities of public broadcasting. * Ensure training of m anagement and staff on the ethos and purpose of public broadcasting. * Secure a reliable funding mechanisms that will support program diversity and innovation. ————————————————- Campus Radio Campus radio (also known as college radio, university radio or student radio) is a type of radio station that is run by the students of a college, university or other educational institution.Programming may be exclusively by students, or may include programmers from the wider community in which the radio station is based. Sometimes campus radio stations are operated for the purpose of training professional radio personnel, sometimes with the aim of broadcasting educational programming, while other radio stations exist to provide an alternative to commercial broadcasting or government broadcasters. Campus radio stations are generally licensed and regulated by national governments, and s o have very different characteristics from one country to the next.One commonality between many radio stations regardless of their physical location is a willingness — or, in some countries, even a licensing requirement — to broadcast musical selections that are not categorized as commercial hits. Because of this, campus radio has come to be associated with emerging musical trends, including genres such as punk and New Wave, alternative rock, indie rock and hip hop, long before those genres become part of the musical mainstream. Campus radio stations also often provide airplay and promotional exposure to new and emerging local artists.Many campus radio stations carry a variety of programming including news (often local), sports (often relating to the campus), and spoken word programming as well as general music. Often the radio format is best described as a freeform, with a lot of creativity and individualism among the disc jockeys and show hosts. A number of these rad io stations have gained critical acclaim for their programming and are considered by the community in which they are embedded to be an essential media outlet.Although the term campus radio implies full-power AM or FM transmission over the air, many radio stations experiment with low-power broadcasting, closed circuit or carrier current systems, often to on-campus listeners only. Some radio stations are distributed through the cable television system on cable FM or the second audio program of a TV radio station. Some universities and colleges broadcast one or more Internet radio feeds — either instead of, or in addition to a campus radio station — which may differ in radio formats significantly from licensed traditional campus radio. ———————————————— Internet Radio Internet Radio – Internet Radio describes a technical achievement which allows audio to b e digitized and split into small pieces for transmission across the Interent. The ultimate effect is to create the illusion of â€Å"radio†. The audio is â€Å"streamed† through the Internet from a server in one location and reassembled on the listener's end by a software player on a computer or Internet Radio receiver. Internet Radio is not really radio by the traditional definition but an incredible simulation.This term also describes the conglomeration of streaming audio which is available on the Internet which can be listened to by using a software player or browser which supports streaming audio. In another way, an audio broadcasting service that is transmitted through the Internet. Internet radio is similar in nature to Internet broadcasting, also called webcasting. However, those listening to the continuous stream audio broadcast have no control over the stream, similar to traditional radio broadcasting.Many radio stations worldwide offer their broadcast via Int ernet radio to a worldwide audience. Today dedicated hardware devices, commonly called Web radio or Internet radio appliances  , can be purchased that connect to a home network and then to the Internet to play live audio streams. Internet radio is also called e-radio. The benefits of an internet radio_ More station choice An internet radio gives you access to more than FM or DAB digital radio, including some foreign language stations. Find new stationsThe menus on an internet radio enable you search by different methods including by genre. So you could search for all of the rock stations available and find new stations that play the types of music you love. Podcasts and BBC listen again You can access podcasts from BBC and commercial stations and just as you might use listen again on BBC iPlayer or Radio player on your computer, you can access listen again to   shows through an internet radio, too. Music player/ media sharing Most internet radios have a music player mode for str eaming music from devices on your home network.If you keep your music collection on your computer at home you can use the radio’s screen to choose music from your collection and listen using the radio's speakers. Forget DAB reception Internet radio works using your internet connection. It doesn't rely on getting a signal from a transmitter the way DAB and FM do, so it doesn't matter if DAB reception is poor where you live – you can get your digital radio fix via the internet. Education System in Bangladesh The education system and structure of Bangladesh  has three major stages-primary, secondary and higher educations.Primary education is a 5-year cycle while secondary education is a 7- year one with three sub-stages: 3 years of junior secondary, 2 years of secondary and 2 years of higher secondary. The private schools also receive strong financial support from the state. The tertiary education (3-5 years) is provided through universities (31 public and 51 private un iversities) and affiliated colleges under supervision of University Grants Commission. Establishment of private universities has gained momentum in recent years. At all levels, students can choose the medium of education from Bangla or English.The Ministry of Education is the supreme state office for education which again is subdivided in different directorates for each level while running numerous development projects (Education Projects and Technical projects). According to the article 17 of the Constitution, all the children of Bangladesh are supposed to receive full free education up to secondary level. Secondary and higher secondary schools are affiliated under  ten (10) education boards. The boards administer two public examinations – one is the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination and the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) Examination.The higher secondary schools are known as colleges. There are also Madrasah (religiously inclined) and English medium school s which are enrolled under Madrasah Education Board and Foreign Education Board respectively. Besides this, a Technical Education Board has been established to administer the vocational training schools at post-secondary level in Education Board. The National Curriculum and Textbook Board is the authority to develop, approve and manage the curriculum and text books for primary, junior, secondary and higher secondary level.Government has also established Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) which keeps educational information at all levels. Bangladesh Government has published an Education Policy which is developed based on the inputs taken from different education commissions over the years. There are also many non-profit organizations which operate informal and semi-formal education for underprivileged children under supervision of Bureau of Non-formal Education. Linking Radio with EducationDue to potential diversity, the CR technology can most effec tively be used for non formal education for adult people, awareness programs, youth development programs, local community knowledge sharing, recycling of knowledge, ethnic community preservation programs and in areas, where density of population is sparse, where access to school is difficult like char (land within a river) and hilly areas of the country and also isolated places because of less access to road or other communication, and where access of qualified teachers are very few. Sweeney and Parlato (1982, p. 3) stated, â€Å"Radio plays an effective educational role both as the sole medium or in conjunction with print and group support†. So, Community Radio has a prospect for education expansion and community schools. Community Radio can also help, develop and mobilize social capital. This technology is cheaper too. For example, Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) is a well-tested teaching and dissemination method that is inexpensive, accessible and flexible. In Africa, Community Radio has speeded up and expended the process of information exchange. The second goal of MDGs is to achieve universal primary education.Education is the backbone and foundation for a nation. This is one of the fundamental goals as Nobel Lauriat's Amarta Sen argues, â€Å"Development is freedom and education is the royal road of freedom† (Daniel, 2006). As most developing countries underscore its educational potential and importance, many writers have proposed that educational radio can be most effective when supported by trained facilitators, group learning, group discussion, feedback and the use of multimedia approaches, thus interactive and independent learning help develop social software which is considered essential for quality education.The dynamic potential of radio in motivating listeners to take action, modifying behavior, and undertaking activities is evident in the literature thus far. ————————†”———————- Distance Learning Learning is the liberating force of human development and every individual has a right to education. To serve the aforesaid considerations, ODL helps create democratization in education for flexible learning system. In ODL, student centered teaching approach is used. Tutors and learners are hysically separated in the system, and distance education institutes usually use technology like state-owned Radio and Television for a particular time to disseminate contents of learning to the learners, which might not be effective and accessible to all distance learners due to inflexible time allocation. Since CR is covering a limited geographical area and focusing on the local needs, culture and social events, educational and academic programs can be incorporated into the CR programs at any time of any location as it is more flexible than national broadcasting.In addition, distance education institutes have long ex periences in using the technology of Radio and TV. They can apply their experience for CR on segment base as well as programs base. Most distance learning organizations generally have several outlets for tutorial or other instructional services in distant and remote areas. Having their own infrastructures, these distant teaching outlets could be turned into Community Radio Learning Centers (CRLC) for the open and distance learning institutes and these stations can be worked as local facilitators for the academic programs of both formal and non-formal education.Anyanwk (1978 p. 15-16) mentions, â€Å"Through collective listening, discussion, and the use of audio-visual aids, the radio can contribute substantially to the process of transformation of agricultural traditions, as well as some social and economic attitudes in general†. Radio has been used extensively as an educational medium in developing countries like India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, South Korea, Mali, Guatemala, Bots wana, South Africa, Zambia, Uganda, Mexico, Philippines and also proved its impact and efficiency in health, agriculture and other development issues. ———————————————— Open University Radio-based educational opportunities are very much commensurate with the delivery system of ODL. After 15 years of the establishment of the Bangladesh Open University (BOU), it has accumulated huge resources in terms of technology and media oriented human resource and infrastructures to put forward a new look to the Community Radio applications.Bangladesh Open University needs to adopt the segment base strategies to provide education for all. The case of Bangladesh is similar as to Louw’s (Paris, France 2007) statement, â€Å". to ensure that communities who have been denied access to resources, take part in producing ethical, creative and responsible radio that encourages them to co mmunicate with each other, to take part in decisions that affect their lives, and to celebrate their own cultures†.The reason for establishing Bangladesh Open University nearly echoes Louw's statement as in the Mission statement, of the BOU Act 1992 envisages that â€Å"the objectives of the University shall be to expand all levels of education, knowledge and science by a diversity of means, including the use of any communication technology to improve the quality of education and to provide opportunities for education to the general public through mass-orientation of education and to create efficient manpower by improving the quality of education in general†.To accomplish these goals of BOU mission statement, it is no denying the fact that BOU needs immediate steps for adopting the Community Radio approach. In terms of preparation, BOU has Media Centre fully equipped with the transmission equipment, full-fledged radio recording studios, editing suites, portable radio re corders and modern radio broadcasting technology. However, BOU has already sought the permission from the Government for having its own frequency allocation. ———————————————— Adult Education About adult education Dhaka University VC Prof Arefin was highlighting on the role of mass media in the socio-economic and the educational development of a developing country. His message was that both the print and broadcast media can play a vital role in enhancing education in a developing country. It can shape and create public opinion towards on related issues by applying its strength and bring changes among individual.Bangladesh is now in a state of â€Å"Media Expansion†, we have lot of TV and radio channels and every day new channels are coming. Broadcasting media is the most common & popular media in our country. In the cases of developing countries, like Bangladesh, imp lementation of education fully depends on appropriate use of broadcasting media technology. And the government as well as private organizations are using Radio and television for meeting these demands.A significant result has already been achieved in the field of mass education of Bangladesh by using broadcasting media. All the TV and Radio channels present various educational programs for the students. These programs become very popular in the country. Bangladesh is now in a state of media expansion. A large number of people here depend on newspapers and broadcast media for entertainment. But media also has an important educational role: Adult students from rural even from city areas can take lesson from watching certain television programs Like â€Å"BBC Janala

Why More People Eat Fast Food

Fast Food In our American society today where waking up early each morning to get ready for work has becoming a very huge part of our daily life, we realize that people are becoming more busy even to the point of becoming lazy since they barely have any time to cook for themselves or for their families and therefore, this has lead to the increasing number of fast food restaurants everywhere we go.Pick McDonalds, Subways and Wendy’s for example; there is no corner you will step that you wouldn't end up seeing their sign because all this fast food are very cheap, very convenient and they taste really good and therefore explains why more people eat fast food this days. In a society where money has become a very big financial problem to many people especially family, eating fast food majority of the time will help them save some money because it is very cheap.Many people will prefer eating at fast food restaurant much cheaper than eating at other restaurant because at a fast food restaurant, a person can get a full meal with less than ten dollars but at a fancy restaurants, ten dollars can only get you a beverage and nothing more people to eat fast food without even thinking about the health problems. Even though eating fast foods are very unhealthy, most people will prefer that over going to buy groceries for cooking because it is very cheap and saves a person more money but it can sometimes be healthy just eating a home cooked food depending on what you prefer to eat.More people today tend to eat more fast food rather than home cooked food because it is very convenient. We no longer live in a society where we wake up early in the morning to make breakfast for ourselves because we do not have enough time due to our busy schedule so therefore, making a quick stop at a local fast food restaurant will help us get our day started. The time limit we have when it comes to taking a break at work or at school these days has become very short that, you do not even h ave enough time to at least make the bowl of noodles or sandwich you wish to have for lunch.In the case of having short breaks at work or school, our only options we have to getting something to eat in the few minutes is to run, drive fast or even walk fast for not more than a minutes and we will be able to get something to eat because the fast food restaurant isn't far from us. The convenience of fast food restaurants today has become very helpful to us especially to those who drive because it helps save gas, driving distance and it is very quick and this reason tends to explain why more people are eating fast food.More people are eating fast food this days because our taste buds have become more important to us than the content in the food we eat, whether it being healthy or not. Satisfying our cravings with some large fries and a cheeseburger from McDonalds or a long foot cheese steak from subway will make us feel better of ourselves even though it is unhealthy than eating some r ice with vegetables made at home even though . People wouldn't care about the percentage of fat in a McDonald’s burger because no one really thinks about what they are eating while they are eating it until they are done with it.As we all know, eating fast foods can bring about so many different types of sickness such as high cholesterol level, diabetes and obesity upon us but we still care because we just want to satisfy our cravings and our taste buds. Even though there are some fast food restaurants such as Subway that provide a nutritious and healthy meal but we will still prefer the other unhealthy fast foods over the healthy ones because they taste good and they satisfy our cravings.As our society keeps growing bigger and developing on a very fast pace, we realize that more people are eating more fast foods because they are very cheap, very convenient and they taste very good to satisfy our taste buds. People are getting so busy this days that, spending just some few min utes out of their business schedule to actually make something to eat has become a problem and therefore has also lead to the growing number of fast food restaurants and the increasing number of people who eat there.We realize the cost of buying groceries in order to put a meal on the table has increased to about two times the money you will spend to eat fast food and this explains why more people are eating fast food today. With money being a big problem in our economy today, people have learned to make tight budgets in order to keep them financially stable and spending more money on food needs to be the very last decision any one will make so therefore, eating fast foods will be the best way for people to save some money and also satisfy their taste buds. Even though we all know how unhealthy fast food, everyone eats them for their own reasons.

Chnage Management and Communication Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Chnage Management and Communication Plan - Essay Example Customers demand increased demand for larger production of plastics as Fortune 1000 enterprise recognized (Robbins & Judge, 2011). Riordan manufacturing functions in bureaucratic and a system based on formal power structures. According to Riordan manufacturing (Organisations charts Executive), a narrow span of control displays the information. Product base and manufacturing decision are only based on a central view. The formal power structures in Riordan are mechanically based in nature thereby a managerial hierarchy chain of command works .the structures that have a narrow span of control affects negatively the company. Power structures currently at Riordan manufacturing are employee development without any job satisfaction and internal growth. With a company staff over a thousand then, company needs to create and effective and efficient computer utilization system to speed processing among departments, employees and customers (Robbins & Judge, 2011). Riordan Manufacturing needs to keep a competitive edge in order to stay competitive by implementing a formal system to manage customer information that has been traditionally been completed by employees. The power and political structures do affect employee behavior. The channels of communication are efficient and cost effective to the organization. Riordan manufacturing based on formal power structures can work efficiently if communication levels and management develops a plan diversified to increased job satisfaction by improving channels of communication. The formal power structures should not exist. Riordan manufacturing company should create a local area network, and connection of an intranet system to enhance efficient communication among departments and suppliers. The network would have a department specific access code and information based on the functionality of the site. Improving the communication is a way suppliers can see

Malcolm X Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Malcolm X - Essay Example A gadfly is someone who is vehemently opposed to some policy of the existing authority and is able to evoke mass support for the same. Socrates was a gadfly because he encouraged those around him to question existing beliefs on morality and ethics. â€Å"He would ask people to explain a concept, point out flaws that would impel them to modify their answer, and continue like this until the person came up with a solid explanation or admit that they didn’t really understand the concept. (Cline) Martin Luther King was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s sayings and was led to believe that non-violence could be used by blacks to obtain civil rights in America. The one statement by Gandhi which deeply affected him was â€Å"Through our pain we will make them see their injustice† Malcolm Xs famous statement was :â€Å"And when you see that you have problems, all you have to do is examine the historic method used all over the world by others who had problems similar to yours.†(Message to the Grassroots, 1963) What he was hinting at was the use of violence. He was inclined to believe that if America was justified in employing the blacks to defend herself abroad, then the Blacks in America likewise had the right to defend themselves against atrocities committed against themselves by the whites. These comments were made at a time when the Blacks in America were facing widespread discrimination and there were also instances of blacks being ruthlessly murdered by whites. In short, he professed the use of violence against people who themselves indulged in violence. ‘Creative tension’ is a rather unusual term because it makes use of words that are at odds with each other. Creativity generally blossoms when the person in question has a calm dispos ition, whilst ‘tension’ is generally associated with individuals who are agitated and vexed. So when you combine the two, it would pertain to individuals being tensed and creative at the same time. In the context of this literature, the leaders, namely, Socrates and Martin Luther King and MalcolmX are addressing the concerns of individuals who are in a displeasure able situation and seek a solution to end their misery. By their speeches the leaders are encouraging their followers to talk and find solutions to their problems. In effect they are being asked to become creative problem solvers. So, whilst they were very much in an agitated state of being, and unsure as to what to do next, the leaders by their speeches are adding to the tension and the people, in turn, are becoming creative in their actions. â€Å"Going against the grain of traditional education, Socrates insisted that personal investigation and reasoned argument, rather than ancestral custom, or appeal to the authority of Homer, Hesiod and other respected poets, was the only proper basis for answering these questions†. (Cooper, 1998) He continually stressed on analyzing any problem logically and abstaining from blindly following that which had been preached before. During his times, people who questioned beliefs were treated with imprudence especially when sentiments of a certain section of society were hurt, with chances of violent action being taken against the former them being quite high. Socrates questioned the use of violence and in this way he was forming creative tension in the minds of the people, for the people of his age were blindly following what had been preached before. He was forcing people to rethink on issues of morality which included pondering on what was right and wrong. Martin Luther King used to travel around the country making speeches and exhorted people to be part of the civil rights movement. He advocated the use of new means to achieve freedom. The B lacks of his times were a confused lot what with widespread discriminative practices against their community and no proper ways to give voice to their disgruntlement. It was during such times that King formed creative tension by giving some kind of direction to the civil rights

Critical Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Review - Essay Example The perspectives that are taken in organizational theory should be keenly considered since they determine how people will understand organizations or how they will behave within their contexts. In understanding organizational theory, it is always necessary to make some philosophical assumptions, which act as a guidance tool; however, these assumptions are usually full of contentions since they usually do not have any evidence to support them. Chapter 2: Modernist organizational theory: Back into the future Modernist organizational theory argues that chaos and disorders among human beings can be overcome through human will and intentions, this means that the order can be maintained by creation of systems, bureaucracies and methods of management that aim at restoring order in a disorderly world. In understanding modernist organizational theory, it is important to look at the intellectual environment and organisations as part of systems; these can be looked at in two different ways. One of the ways is looking at the scientific activities that surround them which include development of the organizational theory; the second way is looking at the organizations as complex systems. Modernist organizational theory is more concerned about bureaucracy as a form of organizational and whether it is an agent of disorder and chaos in the world or it works to restore order in the world. Bureaucracy has been adopted in most of the organizations since the beginning of the 20th century as a means for efficient and effective organisations. Neo-modernist organizational theory: putting people first The modernist approach has been overtaken by the neo modernist approach, which puts the welfare of the people at the centre of the organization. The neo modernist organizational theory uses insight and techniques of the social sciences to build up an organizational and managerial presumption that is usable in problems connected with authority in organizational context. The neo modernist o rganizational theory pays special attention to the values and beliefs that individuals have and how they shape their experiences within organizations (Kets de Vries, 2004, p194). In addition, it also concentrates on how individual values and beliefs are shaped by their experiences in organizations, this leads to organizational culture and ways in which people’s needs can be woven in to those of organizations. This theory has two perspectives on how organizations are usually structured; the first perspective is where the management needs to be sensitive to the needs of the employees in order to create a conducive environment for all stakeholders of the organization. The second perspective is for the management of the organization to create a democratic space, which empowers all stakeholders in the organization (Westenholz, 2003, p110; Johnson, 2006). Chapter 6: post modernism as a philosophy: the ultimate challenge to organizational theory? Post modernism as a philosophy aims to disprove the modernist assumption that the world can be understood objectively by disproving the proposition that it is feasible to come up with a rational and generally applicable basis to scientific inquiry that can explain the universe from an objective point of view (Thompson, 2003, p185). Postmodernism has had the greatest impact on

Tintern Abbey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tintern Abbey - Essay Example These lines capture in essence the role played by memory in preserving emotion and in poetic expression. Tintern Abbey in particular is imbued with the spirit of these lines and best embodies the role of memory in Wordsworth's poetry. At the onset of the poem Wordsworth declares that five years have elapsed since his visit to this idyllic location. With gentle contentment he allows the sheer beauty of the well remembered and much beloved landscape to sink into his being and permeate his very senses. His detailed description of nature bedecked in all finery transports the reader and one can almost see the "steep and lofty cliffs" and hear the "soft inland murmur" of the flowing water (Wordsworth 112). He becomes nostalgic and is filled with bittersweet remembrances connected to this gorgeous spectacle. Slowly he is lifted up on the wings of memory and he sees himself as the boy he once was and as the man he has become and recollects the eventful time between the two stages of his life. In the said five years, Wordsworth's life had been tumultuous and he bore witness to much suffering, sorrow and pain brought on by the darker side of human nature. He had spent time in France at the time of the French revolution and had been an idealistic supporter of the revolutionaries' cause. However in light of the tide of violence that swept the country and subsequent hostilities between France and Britain he became disillusioned and heartsick and returned to his country. Therefore his return to Tintern Abbey and its idyllic setting is a homecoming of sorts. Spurred by his memory he recollects the pleasurable bond he forged with nature and how it sustained him in trying times and happily looks forward to forging a new bond for the future. Wordsworth describes the profound effect his memory of this location has had on him despite his prolonged absence. Even as he nursed his loneliness in crowded cities and towns, his memories of this picturesque scene eased his fatigued state and rejuvenated his wearied spirit as it filled him with "sensations sweet,/ Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart,/ And passing even into my purer mind,/ With tranquil restoration" (Wordsworth 113). Thus for Wordsworth his memories serve as an opiate for the senses, bruised and battered by a harsh life. He further credits memory for his random acts of kindness. His memories of nature's bounty is like a wellspring of goodness that never runs dry and spurs him on towards achieving a state of perfect morality. Thus pleasant sensations induced by memory are responsible for bringing out all that is pure and true in him. Wordsworth also attributes memory with providing him an insight "into the life of things" (114). Oftentimes he is baffled and bogged down by the thick fog of mystery surrounding the mechanism of the world and thus obscuring his vision of life itself. But he is relieved of this cumbersome burden by memory which allows him to reach deep within himself to find answers and ultimately enlightenment. He is able to shed the trappings of civilization and

Discussion 2 Week 5 Cost Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion 2 Week 5 Cost Management - Assignment Example Accordingly, â€Å"The costs associated with cleaning up an oil spill are strongly influenced by the circumstances surrounding the spill including: the type of product spilled; the location and timing of the spill; sensitive areas affected or threatened; liability limits in place; local and national laws; and cleanup strategy. The most important factors determining a per-unit amount (either per-gallon or per-tonne) cost are location and oil type, and possibly total spill amount† (Etkin, 1999, p. 1). On the other hand, hiding the culpability now could mean deferment of the mentioned costs but would mean paying more in the future in terms of legal expenses associated with the chemical leak, especially to lives and properties that were affected. In addition, the negative image that the incident would generate for the organization could cost them their reputation and would even cause a significant loss in the financial condition of the organization. The fact is corroborated, as asserted: â€Å"those who have been affected by chemical leaks and spills, whether residents of the area or local business owners, may be entitled to financial compensation for the harm they have experienced. The at-fault industrial plant, oil company or other corporation may be held liable for the injuries and property damage the incident has caused† (Toxic Chemical Leaks & Spills, 2012, p. 1). Therefore, the delay in admitting the fault could cause greater damages which would be more costly for the organization in the long run because the same cleanup cost elements would be incurred, in addition to legal expenses and the damage to the reputation of the

Innocent smoothies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Innocent smoothies - Assignment Example Innocent’s mini-kiosks were some of the few food outlets in the Olympic park offering healthy food alternatives to the millions of attendees. The company also ran a two-week campaign called ‘Tweet for A seat’ prior to the start of the Olympics (Eleftheriou-Smith, 2012). This was intended to have the fans regenerate the advertisements by tweeting pictures of the company’s products to their followers. In the campaign, Innocent called on its Twitter followers to suggest whom they wanted to take with them to the Olympics and the reason for a chance to win a seat for two. The campaign followed a decision by the company to scrap off its scheduled promotion through which it aimed to improve the sale of Olympic tickets. Smoothie had worked to be the official smoothie and juice sponsor of the Olympics. Before the start of 2012 Olympic, Innocent launched a healthy living campaign, which encouraged people to kick off the year with healthy lifestyles (Eleftheriou-Smith, 2011). The company features one retired athlete, Kris Akabusi in its video advert clips and billboards with a message to encourage people to get back into fitness through exercising. It gave away free day passes to the gyms of virgin active all over Europe (OReilly, 2014). Although this campaign was not geared to promoting the Olympics, it helped the company generate more revenue clocking 200 million pounds the following year. The company’s promotional campaigns have always focused on marketing its products as the best alternative healthy foods in Europe. It prompts people to focus on their health and watch their diet. Its tagline ‘tastes good, does good’ is meant to appeal to the buyers to buy the products and feel the tastes and effects of the product. By appealing to the healthy lifestyle, the company brands itself as the only one offering alternatives to longer living. This is a moral appeal

Project Analysis Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project Analysis Report - Research Paper Example The following report presents an analysis on a project from its planning, implementation and performance together with other crucial elements of a project. The project is Computerized Passenger Reservation System by the Indian Railways. The project was successful developed, designed and implemented as attributed by the high level of management, experienced vendor, CMC, slow hurrying among other strategic techniques that the company employed. Introduction Success of a project depends on several things such as evaluation of risks and opportunities and knowing how to utilize the outcomes for the benefit the project, as well as effective project’s objective definition, planning and management. A project manager plays a key role in project planning, execution and implementation; thus, they are tasked with the obligation to search for new strategies and ensure a strategic project. The following report presents an analysis on a project from its planning, implementation and performanc e together with other crucial elements of a project. The project is Computerized Passenger Reservation System by the Indian Railways. Overview of the Project and Objectives The establishment of railway transport in India started in 1851, and by 1901, there were 24 million passengers using railway transport managed by GIPR Company. 42 railway companies operated in India during the colonial era, but after independence, they were all merged and operated by the government (Raman & Wig, 2010). Since then, the company has improved on the number of passengers carried per year, as well as the carriages and the railway lines. The Indian Railways is divided into 17 zones for effective management with several divisions. The divisions also encourage sports and operate hospitals and schools for employees. PRS system that was designed from scratch has been labeled the most successful project done by the Indian railways. The objective of this project was to transform passenger reservation system i n order to handle the huge magnitude of passengers and complexity of the transactions. Analysis of scope of the project shows that is was divided into four stages, which were initiation stage, project stage, implementation stage and growth stage. The initiation stage comprised feasibility studies and the decisions that piloted the approval, as well as funding of the PRS project. The major activities at this stage included creating the need for the PRS, approving schedule and budget and identifying management team for the project (Raman & Wig, 2010). The second stage was the project stage, which constituted activities for startup of the project. Activities in this stage were vendor and hardware selection, systems design, integration, testing, software development, data conversions, manual procedures redesigning and finally, roll-out. The third stage of the project scope was the implementation stage where the organization accepts PRS and puts it into use. As such, this stage was fulfi lled by carrying out activities such as rework, debugging system and software, staff training and system performance tuning. Lastly, growth stage came fourth on the scope of the project, and this is where the organization established plans to further investment in infrastructure to support the technology. In addition, the organization also extended the new system’s use to other areas, as well as developed additional applications to be linked with the system. Stakeholder Analysis The major

Analyze Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Analyze - Essay Example This is because in spite of creating employment and creation of an alternative source of energy, it results to increased levels of environmental pollution. The article focuses on given the basis of the rules that have been laid down by EPA to regulate the negative impacts of fracking. Some of the most interesting statistics from the article include the gas production industry which emits 40 percent of the methane; the rules formulated will reduce the emission of harmful by nearly 95 percent (Weinhold, 2012). Furthermore, natural gas mining is done in 33 states and this number will increase (Weinhold, 2012). The most common sources that have been used in the article are reports by EPA, EIA (Energy Information Association) and GAO (Government of America). The article highlights the negative impacts of fracking. Environmental Protection Agency that is abbreviated as EPA stated that they were concerned about the high levels of pollution resulting from unsupervised fracking locations. As a result, EPA came up with rules and regulations to monitor these sites (Weinhold, 2012). The article highlights that pollutant emitted during this process can result to health complications such as cancer and heart diseases. This issue interests me since I am a devoted environmental conservationist and I am concerned about the conservation of the

Two Leaders S. Jobs and R. Branson Essay Example for Free

Two Leaders S. Jobs and R. Branson Essay This project report is based on comparison made between two leaders knows as CEO of Apple Company Late Steve Jobs and CEO of Virgin Group Sir Richard Branson. In this project report both Leaders have been compared and contrasted according to their leadership qualities, skills, attitudes, personalities and value system owned by each of them. According to this given project report comparison made between both the leaders shows that Richard Branson is considered as an effective Leader because he is participative and charismatic in nature. He possesses several leadership, managerial and entrepreneurial skills and qualities. Sum up, according to analysis of given project, this report provides some recommendations regarding the Leadership styles and qualities to be followed in organizations. * There is no single style of leadership to be followed by leaders because leaders must change their styles according to required situation. * An effective leader has qualities such as honesty, loyalty, responsibility, excellent communication, enthusiasm, motivation, competence and etc. * Successful Leaders are required for managing conflicts, framing appropriate decisions, thinking strategically, empowering employees, and designing team based structures (Mind Tools Ltd 2013). * Steve Jobs and Sir Richard Branson both applied similar approach of being a transformational leader and valued factors such as quality and innovation for creating a successful and sustainable business. * Steve Jobs Late CEO of Apple Company was an autocratic and transactional leader. He was having excellent communication and technical skills for applying it to new technologies but he lacked interpersonal skills with him. * Richard Branson CEO of Virgin Group is considered as participative, charismatic, and leader. He possessed skills such as interpersonal, communication, negotiation and persuasion for diversifying several brands under a single virgin group. * Sir Richard Branson is compared and contrasted according to certain attributes such as personality, values, emotions and leadership qualities and is found more effective as compared to Steve Jobs. Table of ContentsPage No 1.0Introduction Leaders are typically thought to be individuals who create a strong influence on others. For an example in global business environment Leaders have been creating difference with their qualities and styles followed by them. The effective Leaders have qualities such as honesty, responsibility, loyalty, enthusiasm, determination, creative, adaptability, good communication, empathy, competence, respect and acting as a source of motivation for the followers. In an era of globalization Leaders are creating an edge over their competitors by applying leadership Qualities. 1.1Aim The aim of this project report is to compare and contrast two global Leaders such as Steve Jobs and Richard Branson. It will highlight similarities and dissimilarities between two leaders and their leadership styles. Among two leaders, best Leader and his Leadership qualities followed by him to lead the organization is being explained in this report. The effective leadership skills and qualities making them successful are described in detail. The factors that can make a successful Leader, manager and entrepreneur in any situation are explained in this project report. In this project Report, Steve Jobs and Richard Branson have been defined as Leaders from Business perspective. Both the Leaders have been compared and contrasted according to their Leadership qualities. Among the two Leaders one of an effective Leader is identified by comparing and contrasting the leadership qualities. 2.0 Who is a Leader? To begin with the discussion, Leaders need to be defined in detail. A Leader is one who leads from front and has got an ability to influence others for getting the work done successfully (Macmillan Publishers Limited 2012). In an organization Leaders are required for managing the conflicts, framing appropriate decisions, thinking strategically, empowering employees, and designing team based structures. Leaders possess knowledge, skills and expertise regarding several fields. Several Leadership styles can be followed by Leaders such as participative, directive, charismatic, transformational and transactional style. Participative leaders are those who support the employees by providing them resources and helping them. Directive Leaders are autocratic in nature and want the employees to complete their task in given time frame. Charismatic Leaders are those who can inspire employees to follow his instructions. They are the vision creator for an organization. Transformational Leaders are those who can create self interest within employees for achieving the objectives. Transactional Leaders want employees to achieve the set goals and targets. This report is provided fair analysis of Leadership qualities and styles followed in Business environment globally. There is no single style of leadership which is considered the best one. According to situations Leaders must have an ability to adapt particular leadership style (MGR Consulting 2006). However, there are many examples which highlights that Leaders are developed in organization by implementing Leadership development programs. 3.0Discussion 3.1Two Leaders as Steve Jobs and Richard Branson In this project report the two Leaders Steve Jobs and Richard Branson are being explained. Steve Jobs was the Late CEO of Apple Computers Inc (Leadership with You 2012). He was born on 1955 at US and was a Board Member at Walt Disney Company. He was innovative and critical thinker in nature which helped him to climb the ladder of success. He created one of the most valuable companies of world. Steve Jobs loved to experiment with electronics products which helped him to create a niche market for apple products. Apple is a leader in I-pod and I-phones which attract the youths. The competitors of Apple used re-positioning strategies immediately after launching of their products. Richard Branson is the chairman of Virgin Group and was born on 1950 at United Kingdom. He started his career by recording and latter he owned Virgin Airlines. He is being addressed by giving title as â€Å"Sir† listed in the list of wealthiest entrepreneur’s of Britain. Virgin is one of the most reputed brands existing in more than thirty countries of world, and it is diversified into several segments. Steve Jobs Richard Branson both are treated as global leaders for following their respective leadership qualities and styles. 3.2 Compare and Contrast Two Leaders The two leaders know as Late CEO of Apple Steve Jobs and owner of Virgin Group Sir Richard Branson is being compared and Contrasted in this paragraph. * Comparison between two Leaders Steve Job was autocratic in nature and wanted to work with likeminded people. He wanted himself to be involved in each and every detail for getting expected result from his employees (Richard Hughes, R Ginnett, Gordon J Curphy 2009). He was a transformational and transactional leader too. He acted as transactional Leader, by creating vision for Apple Company and encouraging all employees to link their performance for achieving set goals and targets. He acted as a transformational leader by focusing all around Apple’s technology and motivating employees to create self interest for making it one of the most valuable and appreciated Brand all across the Globe (Conceivably Tech 2012). He carried such as personality which will be remembered in terms of technology for many years. Richard Branson and Steve Jobs worked with passion and dedication to get effective results for creating things which could make them feel proud. Sir Richard Branson also worked with people for creating difference in similar manner as Steve Job created. He believed in creating something which worth for quality similarly as Steve Jobs did for Apple. Richard Branson and Steve Jobs acted as transformational Leader for striving best qualities among their people. In brief both Leaders positioned their organization all across the globe by providing superior quality of product, services with strong Brand Image. * Contrast between Two Leaders The difference between both the Leaders and their Leadership styles are being listed with bullet points. * Steve Jobs was an autocratic Leader and followed an Authoritarian Leadership style. He believed in getting excellence from his employees whereas Richard Branson is participative and delegative in nature. * Steve Jobs had a personality to be centre of attraction for getting any activity being done at Apple whereas Richard Branson provides complete autonomy to his employees for getting things done in a better manner. * Steve jobs acted as a good communicator where as Richard Branson believe in listening others for avoiding mistakes (Finnie, Scot 2011). * Steve Jobs believed in holding power in his hand whereas Sir Richard Branson believe that distribution of power is effective for diversifying the business. * Steve Jobs used concept of firing and forcing for employees to deliver the desired outcome whereas Sir Richard Branson believe that an organization is created and developed by people. * Jobs believed that Business can be managed with great ideas whereas Richard Branson stated that fun should be created, employees should be rewarded for their ideas. According to skills, qualities and attributes required by the Leaders, effectiveness of Richard Branson as a Leader will be explained in this project report. 3.3One of the Effective Leader’s According to both Leaders, Sir Richard Branson can be considered as an effective leader. The leadership qualities possessed by him are being researched and explained in detail. Richard Branson is the figurehead of Virgin Group. According to researchers, the three factors which highlight the leadership traits of Richard Branson are smile and work with friendly approach, enjoy fun at work, and appreciate the ideas of employees. According to (Paul Beeston 2010) there are certain attributes which is being possessed by Richard Branson. They are segmented below. Personality: Richard Branson Personality states certain attributes such as he is a charming, caring, sensitive, frank and enthusiastic Leader. Values: He applies attributes to value system for growing the business at Virgin Group. It includes factors such as quality, working in team, competition, reliability, fun and innovation. Emotions: He is emotional and applied attributes by being good listener, encourager, and communicator. Leadership Attributes: Richard Branson is a charismatic, participative and transformational leader who could create vision of Virgin Group and diversified it by being participative. He applies principle of time management and valued contribution of employees at Virgin Group. He is having and ability to find right talent and create an environment where he can fit them. According to Branson, Learning takes place by committing mistakes and negotiation takes place by persuading others. He is a true motivator for employees at Virgin group by encouraging informality. He believes in building interpersonal relationship, accepts the challenges by experimenting things. Therefore from the above attributes which are being highlighted it can be stated that Richard Branson is more effective as compared to Steve Jobs while applying Leadership qualities. However Richard Branson we will explain the skills being possessed by Steve Jobs and Richard Branson in this project report 3.4 Skills Demonstrated by Both the Leaders. The leaders need to demonstrate certain skills for marking their presence as Leaders in Business environment. To grow the business effective communication should take place. Steve Jobs had a good communication and an entrepreneur skill. He acted as a good team Leader and implemented strategies upon the team members. He worked with perseverance skill and focused on providing quality products. He had innovating skill and technical skills which was applied for designing new technologies to make apple a reputed brand all across the globe. According to him Continuous Learning is required for a Leader and his employees of Organization to create a valuable Brand. He believed in hiring loyal people which shows that he was ethical and loyal towards Apple Company. However, Steve Jobs lacked to build better interpersonal relations because he had autocratic leadership skills. He had entrepreneurial skills which helped him to bear the risk at Apple (Mansueto Ventures LLC 2013). Virgin Group is on e of the most reputed companies of the world. Richard Branson applies several skills to manage the business which is diversified into more than 300 brands. He is a good listener and values employee’s contribution a lot. He believes in learning from the past mistakes so that time could be saved from committing a new mistake in future. People management skill is being applied by him for empowering the employees at Virgin Group. He applies interpersonal skills to build relationship with customers, stakeholders, and suppliers of virgin group. He possesses additional skills such as being flexible, selling skills, negotiation and appropriate leadership skills. However he also applies leadership and management skills by being participative, charismatic and transformational. Thus it can be demonstrated that both Leaders possessed different skills to manage the business in global environment. However Richard Branson has got more skills which helped virgin group to grow immensely. 3.5 Reasons making successful Leader, Manager’s Entrepreneur Nevertheless, there are certain factors which affect the business environment such as changing customer demand frequently, technology, and fluctuations in the economies. To cope up with such factors organizations need to develop leaders for sustaining and growing their business by accepting the challenges. Steve Jobs and Richard Branson both became successful leaders in their respective areas by creating ideas and vision for their companies, giving respect to customers, stakeholders and employees, communicating transparently, implementing appropriate decisions during critical situations, assuring accountability, supporting the team based working structures, enforcing the learning attitude among themselves and their employees, and adapting changes made in terms of technologies (Donald Patterson 2009). According to Henry Fayol managers are those individuals who have an ability to plan, organize, coordinate and control the flow of activities for achieving the organizational goals. Steve Jobs and Richard Branson acted as Managers to become successful and created an edge for their organization by coaching and counseling their employees, delegating the work appropriately, valuing each other to motivate the employees, developing and following a proper corporate culture, managing the time, and analyzing the risks with analytical skills (Management Advisory Service UK Ltd 2011). As an entrepreneur Steve Jobs and Richard Branson have qualities such as an ability to take higher risks, enjoy the work, act as a promoter, know their customers, experimenting with technologies, creating an edge over others, grabbing the opportunity, negotiating with stakeholders, and managing the time effectively. As an entrepreneur Richard Branson states that he admired Steve Jobs a lot. According to him, one should hire employees according to need. When there is an unnoticed opportunity to everyone, there are high chances of converting it to the vision in reality (The Branson Centre of e ntrepreneurship 2011). Thus these were the reasons which made Steve Jobs and Richard Branson as successful leader, manager and entrepreneur in their respective business. 4.0 Conclusion From the above report it can be concluded that Leaders have an ability to lead from the front by creating influence upon their employees in an organization. In an era of globalization business has to undergo several changes in terms of demographics, technology, culture and economic changes. To cope up with existing and emerging challenges leaders need to implement the successful qualities such of leaders, managers and entrepreneurs. In this project report Steve jobs CEO of Apple Company and Richard Branson CEO of Virgin group are being compared and contrasted. They have been compared in terms of their leadership qualities, styles being followed, skills implemented by them, personality, values, and emotions with respect to certain attributes. Steve Jobs was considered as autocratic and self centered Leader who focused more on technical skills whereas Richard Branson is considered as charismatic, participative and transformational leader who has strong interpersonal skills for managing the business. Steve Jobs focused more towards work whereas Richard Branson enjoys fun at work. Thus according to leadership, managerial and entrepreneurial qualities possessed by both the Leaders, Sir Richard Branson is considered as an effective Leader because he has ability to diversify business into several segments under a single virgin Group. 5.0 Recommendations However, perfect and effective leaders are those who have an ability to accept the critics and move ahead by managing several changes. The recommendations are listed in bullet points. * There is no single style of leadership which is considered the best one. There are several qualities possessed by leaders and styles must be changed according to required situation. * An effective leader has qualities such as honesty, loyalty, responsibility, excellent communication, enthusiasm, motivation, competence and etc. * Successful Leaders are required for managing conflicts, framing appropriate decisions, thinking strategically, empowering employees, and designing team based structures (Mind Tools Ltd 2013). * Steve Jobs and Sir Richard Branson both applied similar approach of being a transformational leader and valued factors such as quality and innovation for creating a successful and sustainable business. * According to this project report, Steve Jobs CEO of Apple Company was an autocratic and transactional leader. He was having excellent communication and technical skills for applying it to new technologies but he lacked interpersonal skills with him. * Richard Branson CEO of Virgin Group is considered as participative, charismatic, and leader. He possesses skills such as interpersonal, communication, negotiation and persuading for diversifying several brands under a single virgin group. * Sir Richard Branson is compared and contrasted according to certain attributes such as personality, values, emotions and leadership qualities and was found more effective as compared to Steve Jobs. Although Richard Branson admired Steve Jobs a lot but he states that fun should be created to bring new ideas into business. 6.0 References R. L. Hughes, R.C. Ginnett, G.J. Curphy, 2012, Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience, 7th edn, McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York. Macmillan Publishers Limited 2012,†Leader†, viewed on 11-01-2013, http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/leader MGR Consulting 2006,†Why we need Leaders†, Accessed on 11-01-2013, http://mgrconsulting.com/Newsletters/eNewsletter_06_02.pdf Leadership with You 2012,†Steve Jobs Leadership Case Study†, Accessed on 11-01-2013, http://www.leadership-with-you.com/steve-jobs-leadership.html Conceivably Tech 2012,†Defining Leadership: Sir Richard Branson†, viewed on 11-01-2013, http://www.conceivablytech.com/9668/business/defining-leadership-sir-richard-branson Richard Hughes, R Ginnett, Gordon J Curphy 2009, Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience† Journal of Education for Business†, vol.6, pp-189 Finnie, Scot 2011,Steve Jobs’ Indelible Mark,† Finnie, Scot 2011†, vo l.45, no.19, pp 49 Paul Beeston 2010, Belief Model for the Leadership of Richard Branson,† Change in Mind Ltd†.

As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories

As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories This study seeks to investigate how employed individuals form Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), or personal assumptions about the characteristics of a business leader. The existing literature consistently explains that employed individuals, through socialization and past experiences with leaders, develop ILTs. However, such studies have neglected to examine directly how ones past leaders have affected the formation process, therefore leading to a hypothesis examining this formation process. As a competing hypothesis, subordinates personalities will also be assessed on the extent to which subordinates form ILTs congruent with their own personality and how having a leadership self-image affects this relationship. Lastly, it is also predicted that subordinates share a common element when assessing ILTs, such that they will rate participative leadership behaviors higher than any other leadership behaviors. Personality and Past Experiences As Predictors of Implicit Leadership Theories Introduction Employees perceptions, prior expectations, and cognitive prototypes regarding the leadership process have dominated part of the leadership literature (Foti Lord, 1987; Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, Blascovich, 1996; Larson, 1982; Lord Maher, 1993). Based on such literature, it has been determined that working individuals, through socialization and past experiences with leaders, develop Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), or personal assumptions about the traits and abilities that characterize an ideal business leader (Epitropaki Martin, 2004 PAGE NUMBER). ILTs stem from cognitive structures, or schemas, that specify traits and behaviors that followers believe an ideal leader should exhibit. They are stored in the memory, and when followers interact with a person in a leadership position, such schemas become stimulated (Kenney et al., 1996). These leadership schemas provide organizational members with a cognitive basis for understanding and responding to supervisor behavior, and they are essential elements of organizational sense-making (Poole, Gioia, Gray, 1989; Weick, 1995). The potential role of ILTs within organizational settings has been highlighted in the literature (Bass Avolio, 1989; Epitropaki Martin, 2004; Lord Maher, 1993; Offermann, Kennedy, Wirtz, 1994). Implicit leadership theories have been represented as a recognition-based approach to leadership (Lord, 1985). Based on this approach, employees compare their implicit leadership theories with their leaders traits and behaviors (Calder, 1977). This matching process is expected to form the impressions employees hold for their leaders. Each individual develops a unique schema (which is sometimes referred to as a prototype) on what traits and behaviors constitute an ideal leader, specifically in the business world. A prototype is an abstract conception of the most representative member or most widely shared features of a given cognitive category (Phillips, 1984, p. 126). These leadership prototypes are said to be formed through exposure to social events, interpersonal interactions, and prior experiences with leaders (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). Therefore, the general definition of ILTs has led to the belief that past experiences predict the formation of such theories. Such prototypes are formed by role schemas (or normative expectations) that allow followers to understand and interpret leaders traits and behaviors (Calder, 1977). As such, it is proposed that leadership is a common label applied to the traits and behaviors congruent with the observers ILTs. When a person exhibits potential leadership characteristics (as defined by the ILT), subordinates assess the potential leader for distinctiveness (as in distinct leadership attributes and behaviors) regarding that behavior (Calder, 1977). If the behavior is distinguishable from the behaviors of other group members, then leadership may be attributed to the person. Similarly, it has been suggested that the perception of leadership involves the activation of a leader category (Phillips Lord, 1981). As such, a persons attributes and/or behaviors are compared to prototypical leader characteristics, activating the leader category if there is a match between attributes and the prototypical attributes and behaviors. In this regard, Lord and his associates (e.g., Lord, 1985; Lord Maher, 1993; Phillips Lord, 1981) have contributed to the ILT field. On the basis of Roschs (1978) theory of cognitive categorization, such literature suggested a categorization theory to leadership and argued that leadership perceptions form a number of hierarchically organized schemas or cognitive categories, each of which is represented by a set of prototypes. Additionally, once a person is categorized as a leader, the activated leader prototype causes followers to selectively attend to, encode, and retrieve schema-consistent information and to provide consistent information where such information does not exist (Phillips Lord, 1981 cited in Kenney, Blascovich, Shaver, p.411). Moreover, Lord and others (Lord et al., 1984; Phillips Lord, 1982) have found that people use categories to differentiate between leaders and non-leaders and between effective and ineffective leaders, which seems essential to the formation of ILTs. Other cognitive categorization theories (e.g., Barsalou, 1985; Smith Medin, 1981) however, argue that classification occurs as observers compare stimuli with ideals or specific examples stored in memory. An ideal includes characteristics that category members should exhibit if they are to serve as a representative to the category (Barsalou, 1985). As such, a category members prototypicality increases with its similarity to the categorys ideal. Therefore, in some cases, categories may be organized around ideal prototypes rather than typical prototypes. For example, a follower might judge a leader based on an ideal notion (ILT) when evaluating whether a leader is worthy of influence (Barsalou, 1985). Similarly, the closer the stimulus is to a categorys ideal, or the more category exemplars the stimulus resembles, the more likely the observer will classify the stimulus as a member of that category (Kenney, Schwartz-Kenney, Blascovich, 1996). In this example, the category is a leader w ho is worthy of influence. It has also been argued that there is a possible feedback loop between employees categorization of a supervisor as congruent to the implicit leadership profile and their perceptions of the supervisors behavior (Lord Maher, 1993). Leadership categorization processes can have an influence on perceptions of actual leader behavior, but they are also likely to be affected by a persons general day-to-day experiences with a manager. It might be through their exposure to their actual leaders behaviors that employees engage in a categorization process and make active comparison between their actual supervisor and the implicit profile stored in memory. Furthermore, perceivers may then rely on existing categorizations and evaluations of congruence to further simplify the processes required to recognize leadership in others. Once someone is categorized as close or distant to a perceivers ILTs, the relevant leadership schema generates further assumptions about the persons behavior, affecting per ceptions of that behavior. Additionally, once people attach a label to an object, person, or event, this process of categorization guides how they interpret much of the subsequent information they encounter concerning that object, person, or event. Over time, this additional information tends to strengthen the original categorization (Lord Maher, 1993). Measure of ILTs and Effects on Validity To date, there is no single and widely accepted measure of implicit leadership theories. Several researchers have developed independent lists of traits to measure ILTs, but such lists are rarely replicated in other research, and they often use different clusters of traits. However, attributes such as intelligent, honest, dynamic, and motivated seem to exist in all the lists elicited, and a distinction between positive (prototypic) and negative (anitprototypic) traits has been made by most researchers (Epitropaki Martin, 2004; Offermann, Kennedy, Wirtz, 1994). In addition, ILT trait lists can be fairly long, as in Lord et al.s (1984) scale of 59 items, the Schein Descriptive Indexs (SDI; Schein, 1973) 92 item scale, and Offermann et al.s (1994) scale of 41 items (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). Other scales include the Campbell Leadership Indicator (CLI; Campbell, 1991), Kenney et al.s (1996) Leaders Described as Worthy of Influence, and House et al.s (1999) Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theories (CILTs). It is important to note here that leadership instruments as a whole have used both traits and behaviors to measure the construct. Specifically, the trait approach emphasizes attributes of leaders such as personality, motives, values, and skills, whereas the behavior approach emphasizes the importance of what leaders actually do (e.g., activities, responsibilities, functions, etc.; Yukl, 2002.). However, behavioral theories are often considered a stronger approach in leadership literature, and thus will be the approach taken in the present study. Specifically, a meta-analysis examining the Ohio State leadership behaviors of Consideration and Initiating Structure dimensions illustrated important support for the validity of Initiating Structure and Consideration in leadership research (Judge, Piccolo, Ilies, 2004). Generalizability of ILTs A variety of individual difference variables have been considered as potentially being related to ILTs. The present study primarily examines personality as individual differences in relation to ILTs. If individual differences do not affect ILTs, then the ILTs would be generalizable across different groups of people. Such generalizability has been examined in relation to some groups of people, including gender, type of role or job, and culture. However, the generalizability of ILTs is supported by contradictory evidence. Generalizability findings have mainly focused on the areas of consistency across gender (Deal Stevenson, 1998; Offermann et al., 1994), consistency from students to professional samples (Offermann et al., 1994), and consistencies across cultures (Bryman, 1987; House et al., 1999). All three areas are generally supported across the generalizability studies, as findings support claims that ILTs remain unaffected by individual and contextual differences, and the degree to which employees resort to categorical thinking and use ILTs as a map to evaluate their actual supervisors behavior does not vary as a function of context or individual differences (Epitropaki Martin, 2005). However, other findings argue that some variations do exist. For example, even though men and women have similar perceptions of prototypic leaders, men rated traits such as aggressive, competitive, and feelings not easily hurt higher than women did, and women rated traits such as being aware of others feelings, helpful, and self-confident higher than men did (Deal Stevenson, 1998). In other words, one groups ILT is not necessarily the same as another groups. In addition, there is much discrepancy in ILT ratings in the cross-cultural literature on leadership. For instance, Gerstner (1994) compared leadership prototypes of a business leader across several countries using an attribute-rating task. Results indicated that there are reliable differences in the prototypical leadership perceptions of members from the various countries sampled. Such findings were built upon other literatures asserting that perception is not solely an innate, physiological function of the cognitive process, but is also a subjective process reflecting the self, including cultural background (Markus Kitayama, 1991). Likewise, it was also previously found that characteristic traits of a leader in one culture may be very different from prototypical traits in another culture (Shaw, 1990). Additionally, Hofstede (1976) has proposed that the more similar two individuals are in terms of nationality, the more likely they are to perceive their social environment similarly. Overall, therefore, the generalizability claims of ILTs appear inconclusive, but pertinent information may be lacking. As such, further investigation should be undertaken. Additionally, other hypotheses by Eptriopaki and Martin (2005) examined the degree to which people use ILTs as a benchmark to make sense of their supervisors behavior, and suggested that it might change as a function of context. For instance, a limited capacity model has been applied to leadership perceptions and leader behavior ratings (Epitrokpaki Martin, 2005; Lord Maher, 1990). This model acknowledges peoples limited memory capacity and their reliance on general cognitive simplification mechanisms (such as ILTs), particularly in conditions of high cognitive load. Furthermore, it was also proposed that employees in jobs of high demand will rely more on their ILTs to rate the quality of the leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship they develop with their manager (Epitropaki Martin, 2005). It was further proposed that employees in exchanges of short duration would rely more on their ILTs to rate the quality of the relationship they develop with their supervisors than those in ex changes of long durations. Such variations have not been examined further, and there is still a clear need for future examination of all demographical variables. When considering the formation of ILTs, the present proposal will hold cultural differences constant, as only U.S. residents will serve as participants. Ethnicity and gender differences will be controlled. As described above, the definition and illustration of ILTs often refers to past experiences playing a role in the formation of such theories. However, studies have neglected to examine directly how ones past leaders have affected the formation process. The first hypothesis in the present study attempts to explain how the role of past experiences affects the ILT formation process by examining ratings of subordinates most and least effective leaders. Therefore, the following is hypothesized about the effects of experience on predicting implicit leadership theories: Hypothesis 1: Subordinates past experiences with various types of leaders will predict their implicit leadership theories. ILTs will be more strongly related to descriptions of ones most effective leader than to descriptions of ones least effective leader. The Formation of ILTs Expanded: The Effects of Personality The present study also examines how ILTs could be formed by personality. Historically, results of investigations relating personality traits to leadership have been inconsistent and often disappointing. Most reviews of the literature have concluded that the trait approach has fallen out of favor among leadership researchers. The original source of skepticism with the trait approach is often attributed to Stogdills (1948) influential review. Although Stogdill did find some consistent relations, he concluded, The findings suggest that leadership is not a matter of passive status or of the mere possession of some combination of traits (Stogdill, 1948, p. 66). As Bass (1990) noted, after Stogdills (1948) review, situation-specific analyses took over, in fact, dominating the field of leadership theory and research (p. 59). Many attempts have examined the personality traits in effective leaders (Hogan, 1994; Judge Bono, 2000; Tett Burnett, 2003), but the definition of what comprises an e ffective leader may be partly responsible for theory abandonment. Perhaps this is because there are unique differences among individuals personalities, it seems likely that individuals implicit leadership theories, or their expectations of an effective leader, will be differ from person to person, and these differences could be related to personality of the person whose ILT is examined. The ILTs approach reflects a resurgence of interest in leadership traits, but the emphasis is now placed on the perceptual processes underlying the conceptualization of leadership. When defining ideal leadership, it is important to remember that ones personality may affect what behaviors he or she thinks are most effective for leading others (Cucina, Vasilopoulos, Sehgal, 2005). A similar case has already been argued for the role that supervisors implicit theories play on performance appraisals (Borman, 1987; Cronbach, 1955; Uggerslev Sulsky, 2008). For instance, it has been found that raters often use their own distinctive dimensions to evaluate the performance of their employees (Borman, 1987). Such evidence has led to the implementation of frame-of-reference (FOR) training, or a training program that helps raters hold a common understanding of how to rate an organizations performance dimensions. FOR training has been shown to help increase the accuracy of performance ratings, thereby countering the effects of supervisors implicit theories of performance. Therefore, if it has been found that supervisors have implicit theories based on their own personal performance ideology, it only seems logical that subordinates could too have their own personal theories on the performance of leaders. Social Perceptions based on Similarity Some of the ILT literature has suggested that implicit theories can provide stability to dyadic relationships when they fulfill a similarity paradigm (Epitropaki Martin, 2001; Turban et al., 1990). For instance, the similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971) states that similarity between individuals with regard to personal attributes or other characteristics is linearly related to interpersonal attraction, such that similarity gives rise to attraction while dissimilarity engenders repulsion. In the context of outcomes, it has been argued that interpersonal attraction fosters supervisor-subordinate compatibility and in turn, performance. For instance, the resulting interpersonal connection encourages accurate perception of supervisor performance expectations and, consequently, improved subordinate performance (Deluga, 1998). In addition, there is evidence that perceptions of similarity, both in a general sense (Wexley Pulakos, 1983) and with regard to specific attributes such as demographic characteristics (Epitropaki Martin, 2001), attitudes (Phillips Bedeian, 1994), values (Ashkanasy OConnor, 1997), competence (Kim Organ, 1982) and personality traits (Bauer Green, 1996; Keller, 1999), have been associated with perceptions of leader-member exchange quality. Moreover, it has been found that subordinates who regard themselves as being similar to their supervisors communicate more with them, and are rated as higher performers than those who do not (Turban et al., 1990). This may describe the previously mentioned gender differences found in terms of individual ratings on effective leader attributes. Other relationships, like mentorships, have also evidenced success based on attraction due to the similarity of race and gender, and perceived similarity of beliefs and attitudes (Turban, Dougherty, Lee, 2001). Overall, perceived similarity in a dyad (such as a supervisor-subordinate pair) is often related to favorable or pleasurable outcomes. Social Perceptions and Self-Serving Biases Individuals often believe that what they do, or how they contribute at work, is important. For instance, literature on positive self-illusions suggests that individuals may prefer leaders similar to the self, because such individuals tend to hold unrealistic, positive illusions of the self (Taylor Brown, 1988). Assuming that becoming a leader and leadership are construed as socially desirable, individuals may keep unrealistic expectations of assuming a leadership position and project their own traits onto idealized leadership images. In other words, as individuals tend to view themselves in an overly positive manner, believing that they themselves could be leaders, they may be most satisfied and most likely to want to continue working with leaders who are similar to them (Taylor Brown, 1988). They might judge such leaders to be more effective, which is similar to ILT perceptions. The social cognition literature also suggests that individuals engage in self-serving biases when describing attributes that are necessary for performance (Cucina, Vasilopoulos, Sehgal, 2005). It has been suggested that individuals tend to indicate that their own personality traits are those that are necessary for successful performance. Research in this domain initially (Lewicki, 1983) examined self-serving biases when looking at prototypes of social categories. It was evidenced that if an individual has a favorable impression of a target (e.g., a leader), then he or she will be more likely to assume that the target has the same characteristics as ones self. In addition, she will ascribe her own strengths and positive attributes to the target. While there is currently no available literature on self-serving biases and implicit leadership theories, several studies have examined how self-serving biases affect ratings of leadership orientation (Dunning, Perie, Story, 1991; McElwee, Dunning, Tan, Hollman, 2001). In these studies, participants tended to rate leaders as goal- or people-oriented depending on which orientation the participant possessed. Interestingly, such self-serving biases were only present when rating leadership performance, as opposed to leadership creativity (Dunning, Perie, Story, 1991). In addition, liking the target leader was not found to mediate or moderate the relationship between orientation of the leader and orientation of the participant (McElwee, Dunning, Tan, and Hollman, 2001). Perhaps the trait activation model (Tett Burnett, 2003) can assist in explaining how people develop the previously discussed self-biased belief systems, and consequently, their expectations. For instance, according to the trait activation model, a person will rate specific behaviors high on importance for successful performance, because those specific behaviors (and their underlying personality trait) are what make him or her effective. Because of such beliefs, those behaviors become valued by the individual. For example, a conscientious person will likely engage in organizational behaviors and work in a methodical fashion, because that is what he or she thinks is necessary in order to perform successfully on a job. When a persons traits are valued by ones organization (or perhaps ones leader), the person will probably experience more satisfaction with the job (Tett Burnett, 2003). In return, an individual may expect a leader to have similar traits as the self if these traits are seen as valuable and related to performance. Applying this rationale, it is hypothesized that a self-serving belief system will affect the formation of followers implicit leadership theories in terms of trait-based principles. Such a hypothesis lies on the foundation that personality is the underlying driving force behind how individuals behave, or why certain types of behaviors are valued. In other words, it is speculated that a subordinate will rate how an effective leader should perform (i.e., ILT), based on implicit assumptions about the behaviors that make the subordinate most effective. It is proposed that followers will hold implicit leadership theories based on a self-serving bias: that is, a bias that successf ul people are like themselves. Thus, followers will expect an effective leader to exhibit behaviors congruent with the followers own personalities. Hypothesis 2: Subordinates personalities will affect the formation of their implicit leadership theories. As such, subordinates will rate leaders who exhibit behaviors that correspond to their own personality traits as more effective than leaders whose behaviors do not correspond to the subordinates personality traits. Specifically: Subordinate conscientiousness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on initiating structure. Subordinate agreeableness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on consideration. Subordinate extraversion is positively associated with rating a business leader high on inspiring commitment. Subordinate agreeableness is positively associated with rating a business leader high on participative style. The rationale for this hypothesis rests on inferences about the relationships between specific personality traits and specific (leader) behaviors. Regarding Hypothesis 2a, the correspondence between scoring high on conscientiousness and rating a business leader high on initiating structure stems from the constructs definitions. For instance, because those who score high on conscientiousness are said to have high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors (Goldberg, 1992), it seems feasible to assume that such persons would assign high ILT ratings for leader dimensions like initiating structure. Initiating structure refers to leader behaviors such as encouraging the use of uniform procedures and maintaining definite standards of performance (Stogdill, 1963), leader behaviors that parallel the definition of conscientiousness. Similarly, because those who score high on agreeableness are said to have high levels of trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors, it is predicted that such persons would have high ILT ratings for the leader dimension of consideration. Consideration refers to leader behaviors such as treating all group members as ones equal and looking out for the personal welfare of group members, behaviors that seem to parallel the definition of agreeableness. Similarly, it is also predicted that those who score high on agreeableness will have high ILT ratings for the leader dimension participative style. Leaders with a participative style consult with their subordinates when facing problems and ask them for suggestions concerning how ideas should be implemented (Northhouse, 2004). Lastly, because those who score high on extraversion are said to have high levels of excitability, sociability, assertiveness, emotional expressiveness, and optimism, it is predicted that such persons would assign high ILT ratings for leader dimensions like inspiring commitment. Inspiring commitment refers to the leader behaviors of proposing change with great enthusiasm and exerting optimism when describing a difficult activity or mission for a work unit (Yukl, 1998). These behaviors seem to parallel the definition of extraversion. Leadership Self-Image Self-schemas are sets of cognitive structures that provide for individual expertise in particular domains of social behavior (Markus, Smith, Moreland, 1985). As schematicism increases in a conceptual domain, such as leadership, so does sensitivity to the behavior of others in that domain. Thinking of oneself as a leader may make ones own characteristics more salient for judging leaders. As a result, it will be important to note whether or not individuals see themselves as leaders, because it may affect if they expect a leader to be like them. That is, if the people think of themselves as leaders, then the Hypotheses 2 are more likely to be true. If, on the other hand, the person has no self-image as a leader and does not ever want to be a leader, the self-serving hypothesis might be less true. It would not be very self-serving to see another person being effective at something (e.g., leadership) as similar to oneself if leadership plays no part in ones self-image. Therefore, the relationships in Hypotheses 2 should be moderated by ones self-image regarding leadership. Hypothesis 3: Subordinate leadership self-image will moderate the relationship between subordinate personality and formation of implicit leadership theories. The relationship between personality and the formation of implicit leadership theories will be stronger when subordinates have a leadership self-image. A proposed model that is consistent with the preceding hypotheses can be viewed in Figure 1. By examining how ILTs may be formed, especially if ones past experience plays a role, important implications could be explored. For instance, Eptiropaki and Martin (2005) noted the potential role ILTs could play in the socialization of newcomers. As such, ILTs can potentially have a significant impact on the development of interpersonal relationships during the organizational socialization process (Eptiropaki Martin, 2005, p. 673). Subsequently, current training programs of leadership could seriously benefit by including some form of ILTs training to increase managers awareness of their subordinate ILTs. Figure 1. The effects of personality and experience on predicting implicit leadership theories. Experience with Behaviors of Multiple Leaders Personality of Subordinates Implicit Leadership Theory Leadership Self-Image Demographic Considerations Previously mentioned generalization issues will be considered when conducting the study. Gender effects on ILTs are of interest in past research, as are age and experience. Younger and less experienced employees might have different conceptions of ideal leadership from employees with more experience and more exposure to organizational leaders (Brown Lord, 2001). Age, education level, occupational title, and years employed will therefore be examined and controlled if necessary. In addition, ethnicity will be recorded, but the sample will be limited to United States residents to avoid previously found cross-cultural differences. Participative Leadership Even though there are often individual differences among people, maybe working individuals just generally prefer a participative leader over a certain type of leadership that is based on their personalities or past experiences. For instance, practicing participative leadership offers a variety of potential benefits, including likelihood to increase the quality of decision-making (Scully, Kirkpatrick Locke, 1995), to contribute to the quality of employees work life (Somech, 2002), and to increase employees motivation (Locke and Latham, 1990), commitment (Armenakis, Harris, Mossholder, 1993), and satisfaction (Smylie, Lazarus, Brownlee-Conyers, 1996), all of which suggest that subordinates react well to participation leadership. Participative leadership is based on the process of joint decision-making by two or more parties in which the decisions have future effects on those making them. The amount of participation by any individual is the amount of influence he or she has on the decisions and plans agreed upon (Vroom, 1959). Specifically, participative leadership involves the efforts of a supervisor to encourage and facilitate participation by subordinates when making decisions that could have been made by the manager alone. Participative leadership can take many forms, such as revising a tentative decision after receiving protests, asking for suggestions before making a decision, or allowing others to make a decision subject to a supervisors final authorization (Yukl, 2002). Field and House (1990) examined the validity of the Vroom-Yetton decision-making model of leadership, and found it was validated for managers, but not for subordinates. Although they were not explicitly studying ILTs, their results sug gest that because the model was developed and validated on managers perceptions of leader styles in relation to their perceptions of effectiveness, it is biased towards managers implicit leadership theories. Subordinates in their study, however, perc